Writing the date: We write the date in English in different ways. The most common way in British English is to write the day of the month first, then the month (starting with a capital letter) and then the year: 20 January 1993, 14 November 2005. We can also write the date in numbers only: 20 January 1993 = 20/1/1993, 14 November 2005 = 14–11–2005 or 14.11.05. Sometimes the last two letters of the number as spoken can be used (th, rd, st, nd): Today is the 7th September. The grand opening is on 1st June. or … on June 1st. If someone asks, "When is your birthday?", the standard reply is "My birthday is Jan. 1.". On the other hand, if someone asks about your birthday after the birthday is over, it is common to say, "My birthday was on Jan. 1." "My birthday is the eighth of August", or "My birthday is on the eighth of August", or "My birthday is August the eighth" or "My birthday is on August the eighth". In written American English, the month of the date comes before the day and year. For example, Independence Day in the USA is on July 4th each year. In the year 2000 the date was 4/7/2000 in British English. In American English this is written 7/4/2000. Speaking the date: We ask the date or about dates in several ways. We can add the and of when we reply: What date did they get married? A: What date is it? B: It's the first of June. (1st June). A: What's the date today? B: It's June the first. (June 1st). A: What's today's date? B: Fifteenth of April. (15th April).
Future: be going to (I am going to work): We use be going to + the base form of the verb: I'm going to take a few exams at the end of the year. It's going to be difficult to get a job during the summer as the tourist industry is suffering from the economic downturn. Be going to is commonly used in informal styles. Intentions: We use be going to to talk about future plans and intentions. Usually the decision about the future plans has already been made: She's going to be a professional dancer when she grows up. I'm going to look for a new place to live next month. Predictions: We use be going to to predict something that we think is certain to happen or which we have evidence for now: It's going to snow again soon. (The speaker can probably see dark snow clouds.) Look out! He's going to break that glass. Commands: We use be going to when we give commands or state that something is obligatory: [parent to a child] You're going to pick up all of those toys right now. This room is a mess! Gonna (informal contexts): Spoken English: We use gonna /gənə/ instead of going to in informal contexts, especially in speaking and in song lyrics. We write gonna to show how to pronounce it: Are you gonna try and get stuff sorted as soon as you can then? (Are you going to try and get things organised as soon as you can?) One day I’m gonna be a star. Be going to (强调自己的决定或者当下的证据) VS will (确定会发生的事)? Will is often used in a similar way to be going to. Will is used when we are talking about something with absolute certainty. Be going to is used when we want to emphasise our decision or the evidence in the present: [An 'A' road is a main road. A 'B' road is a smaller road.] We are now very late so we're going to take the 'B' road. (the speaker refers to the present and emphasises the decision) I know the 'B' road will be quicker at this time of day. (the speaker states a fact).
If only: We use if only to express a strong wish that things could be different. It means the same as I wish but is stronger. We use it to talk about past, present and future unreal conditions. 1. 对现在状况的期许. We use if only + past verb forms to talk about a wish for the present: If only he knew the truth. (he doesn't know the truth, but he wishes he did). Not: If only he knows the truth. If only there was something she could do or say to help. Not: If only there is something she could do or say to help. We sometimes use were instead of was in more formal situations: If only she weren't so tired. (If only she wasn't so tired.). 2. 表达对未来的期望, 或者对比现状和希望的状况. To talk about a wish for the future or to show a contrast between how things are and how we would like them to be, we use if only + would + infinitive without to: If only someone would buy the house. If only they would talk to each other. 3. 表示对过去的事情的遗憾. We use if only + past perfect to talk about a wish to change something that has already happened: If only he had listened to what his friends had been telling him. (He didn't listen.) If only Anna had been able to come. (Anna wasn't able to come.).
Had better 比较强烈的语气, 警告或强调不然会有后果 (口语里用had best, 而不是had better, 以显得不那么咄咄逼人和直接): We use had better to refer to the present or the future, to talk about actions we think people should do or which are desirable in a specific situation. The verb form is always had, not have. We normally shorten it to 'd better in informal situations. It is followed by the infinitive without to: It's five o'clock. I'd better go now before the traffic gets too bad. Not: I'd better to go now. The democratic movement had better concentrate on the immediate issues of the economy and security. (more formal). Had better is a strong expression. We use it if we think there will be negative results if someone does not do what is desired or suggested: She'd better get here soon or she'll miss the opening ceremony. Spoken English: Sometimes people say had best instead of had better, especially in informal speaking. This sounds slightly less strong and less direct: You'd best leave it till Monday. There's no one in the office today. Had better: negative and question forms: The negative of had better is had better not (or 'd better not): I'd better not leave my bag there. Someone might steal it. You'd better not tell Elizabeth about the broken glass – she'll go crazy! The question form of had better is made by inverting the subject and had. This means the same as should, but is more formal: Had I better speak to Joan first before I send this form off? What do you think? Had we better leave a note for the delivery guy to take the parcel next door? Negative questions with had better are more common than affirmative ones: Hadn't we better ring the school and tell them Liam is sick? Hadn't you better switch your computer off? It might overheat if you leave it on. Had better (特定情况下给与的建议) or be better, be best 给与一般性的建议? We use had better to give advice in a specific situation. We use the phrase be better or be best + to-infinitive for more general suggestions: It's always better to be safe than sorry. ('It's better to be safe than sorry' is a saying which means that you should be careful before taking any action.) I think it would be best to speak to the people in the video shop to see what they recommend. Had better or would rather, would prefer? We don't use had better when we talk about preferences. We use would rather or would prefer. Compare: I'd better get a taxi. The buses are so slow. It is a good idea, better, or advisable to get a taxi. I'd rather get a taxi. I don't like buses. I prefer to get a taxi. Had better: typical errors: We use had better to give specific advice, not to talk about obligations or requirements; instead, we use have to, have got to or must: You have to (or must) hold a full, valid driving licence to hire a car. Not: You'd better hold a full, valid driving licence to hire a car. We don't use had better to talk about preferences; instead, we use would rather or would prefer: They offered her a job in Warsaw, but she said she'd rather work in a smaller city. (or … she'd prefer to work …) Not: … she'd better work …. We don't use had better to make ordinary suggestions or recommendations: Auckland is a great place to visit. I'd recommend you take a boat trip across the bay and see some of the islands. Then you can find a nice restaurant for lunch. There are plenty of them. Not: You'd better take a boat trip across the bay and see some of the islands. Then you'd better find a nice restaurant for lunch.
Have got to and have to Have got to and have to mean the same. Have got to is more informal. We use have (got) to here to refer to both verbs. Affirmative form 肯定句, 肯定式: Have (got) to comes before the main verb: You have to try these cakes. They are so good. It is often contracted, especially in speaking. You’ve got to press very hard on the doorbell. Have (got) to cannot be followed by a modal verb: We’ve to take the car to the garage this morning. Not: We’ve to must take the car to the garage this morning. Have (got) to is only used alone when the main verb and any complement of the verb is obvious: A: Does he have to do exams this year? B: Yes, he has (got) to. Negative form: The negative of have to is formed using do not, does not, did not or don’t, doesn’t, didn’t: We don’t have to pay for the food. The negative of have got to is formed by adding not after have. We don’t use don’t, doesn’t, didn’t: We haven’t got to pay for the food. Not: We don’t have got to pay for the food. Question form 疑问句: Do, does, did are used before the subject to form questions with have to: Do we have to take our shoes off? The subject and have change position to form questions with have got to: Have we got to take our shoes off? Have got to and have to: meaning: Obligation (谈义务和责任时, have got to 比 have to 更常用): Have (got) to is used to refer to obligations which come from outside the speaker: You’ve got to drive more slowly! We’re in a 30-mile-an-hour zone. I’ve got to pay extra rent now because my friend has left the apartment. Spoken English: In speaking, have got to is more common than have to when talking about obligation: A: Let’s clean this kitchen up. B: We’ve just got to try to clean it a bit more. A: Yes, at least once a week, it needs a good clean. Deductions and conclusions 表示推断和结论(一定是, 肯定是): Have (got) to can be used to make deductions or draw conclusions. Have (got) to is less common than must in this meaning: You have so much work and you’re not feeling well. This has got to be a tough time for you. (Because you have so much work and are not feeling well, I conclude that your life is hard at the moment.) A: Alan has just left his job in the bank. B: Why? There’s got to be a reason. A: Nobody seems to know why. A: The robbers cut a hole in the ceiling directly above the safe. B: That’s amazing. They’ve got to have known where the safe was. Have got to and have to: tense Warning: Have got to can only be used in the present. Have to can be used in a variety of forms: I’ve got to study for the exam. Not: I’d got to study for the exam. or I’ll have got to study for the exam. I have to study for the exam. I had to study for the exam. I’ll have to study for the exam. She has to call her parents by ten o’clock. She’d had to call her parents by ten o’clock. She’ll have to call her parents by ten o’clock. When future obligations and plans are already agreed, the present tense of have (got) to is preferred, rather than will have to: Jane’s got to be at the doctor’s by three o’clock. I have to pick up my daughter at school at four o’clock.
Reported speech 引语从句: punctuation Direct speech 直接引用 In direct speech we usually put a comma between the reporting clause and the reported clause. The words of the original speaker are enclosed in inverted commas, either single (‘…’) or double (“…”). If the reported clause comes first, we put the comma inside the inverted commas: “I couldn’t sleep last night,” he said. Rita said, ‘I don’t need you any more.’ If the direct speech is a question or exclamation, we use a question mark or exclamation mark, not a comma: ‘Is there a reason for this?’ she asked. “I hate you!” he shouted. We sometimes use a colon (:) between the reporting clause and the reported clause when the reporting clause is first: The officer replied: ‘It is not possible to see the General. He’s busy.’
Speak or talk? speak 用于正式场合(比如工作相关的, 发言等等), 或者不是很熟的人. talk 用于不正式的场合, 或者熟人. speak 强调讲话人的语调,语气表情动作以及发表见解等, talk强调讲话人和听众, 强调的是一种对话. 电话上用speak. speak 和talk 后边都跟to，当需要正式的时候，可以用with。比 talk The verbs speak and talk both generally mean ‘say words’, but there are some small differences in how they are used. Speak is more formal than talk. I need to speak to you. Formal. It is possible that: – the speaker does not know you very well. – this is in a formal setting, such as work. – what the person has to say is important/serious. I need to talk to you. Informal. It is possible that: – the speaker is your friend. – the speaker is someone you don’t know very well, but what they have to say is informal. 1. We usually use speak for more formal presentations and lectures, and talk for more informal ones: Dr Graham Foster will speak about the history of the region. Kyle is going to talk us through the benefits of the software and then Liz will talk about the marketing plan. 2. When we refer to languages, we use speak: How many languages do you speak? 3. Speak usually only focuses on the person who is producing the words: He spoke about the importance of taking exercise and having a good diet. Talk focuses on a speaker and at least one listener, and can mean ‘have a conversation’: I hope I can meet you to talk about my plans for the company. Not: I hope I can meet you to speak about my plans … Compare: He always looks down when he is speaking. The focus is on his use of his voice to produce words. Speak focuses only on the person who is producing the words. I was talking to Maria yesterday. The focus is on the use of words as part of a conversation with someone else. 4. We use speak on the telephone: A: Is Rita there? B: Who’s speaking 你是哪位, 你是谁? A: My name’s Anna. I work with her. Not: Who’s talking? Hello, can I speak to Laura, please? 5. Speak and talk with prepositions: We usually use to after speak and talk. In more formal situations, people sometimes use with: I need to speak to you about this conference next week. I was talking to Richard Moss the other day about the golf club. May I speak with you for a moment? (rather formal). Typical errors: We don’t use talk when referring to foreign languages: I can speak German and Spanish. Not: I can talk German and Spanish. We don’t use speak to focus on conversation: They can talk and get to know each other over dinner. Not: They can speak and get to know each other …
As, when or while? As, when and while are conjunctions. In some uses as, when and while can mean the same, but they can also have slightly different meanings. We use them to introduce subordinate clauses. We can use as, when and while to mean ‘during the time that’, to connect two events happening at the same time: Another coach-load of people arrived as we were leaving. We often use them with the past continuous to refer to background events: When the men were out working in the field, I helped with milking the cows, feeding the calves and the pigs. While he was working, he often listened to music. We can put clauses with as, when and while before or after the main clause. When they come before the main clause, we use a comma: As she was leaving the court, a crowd of photographers gathered around her. (before the main clause, followed by a comma) Steven was very unhappy when things weren’t going well for him. Lucy came into the room while he was waiting. As: We can use as to introduce two events happening at the same time. After as, we can use a simple or continuous form of the verb. The continous form emphasises an action that interrupts or occurs during the progress of another action: As she walked to the door, she thanked them for a lovely dinner. As they were signing the contract, they noticed that a page was missing. When: We can use when to introduce a single completed event that takes place in the middle of a longer activity or event. In these cases, we usually use a continuous verb in the main clause to describe the background event: He was walking back to his flat when he heard an explosion. Depending on the context, when can mean ‘after’ or ‘at the same time’. Compare: When you open the file, check the second page - when meaning ‘after’. I eat ice cream when I am on holiday - when meaning ‘at the same time’. Conditionals : We often use just with when or as to express things happening at exactly the same time: The phone always rings just when I’m closing the front door. She was a brilliant gymnast, but she had a terrible accident in 1999, just as her career was taking off. While and as: We can use while or as to talk about two longer events or activities happening at the same time. We can use either simple or continuous verb forms: We spent long evenings talking in my sitting-room while he played the music he had chosen and explained his ideas. We were lying on the beach sunbathing as they were playing volleyball. When and while without a subject We can use when and while without a verb, or without a subject + auxiliary verb be: Go past the village signpost and you get to a church. When there, take the next turning right. (formal) He read his book while waiting for the bus. (while he was waiting). Warning: We can’t use as in this way: We ate our sandwiches as we walked around the park. Not: … as walking around the park.
Punctuation: The most common punctuation marks in English are: capital letters and full stops, question marks, commas, colons and semi-colons, exclamation marks and quotation marks. In speaking, we use pauses and the pitch of the voice 声调 to make what we say clear. Punctuation plays a similar role in writing, making it easier to read. Punctuation consists of both rules and conventions 惯例. There are rules of punctuation that have to be followed; but there are also punctuation conventions that give writers greater choice. Punctuation: capital letters (B, D) and full stops (.) 字母大写和句号 We use capital letters to mark the beginning of a sentence and we use full stops to mark the end of a sentence: We went to France last summer. We were really surprised that it was so easy to travel on the motorways. The Football World Cup takes place every four years. The next World Cup will be held in South Africa. In 2006 it was held in Germany. We also use capital letters at the beginning of proper nouns. Proper nouns include personal names (including titles before names), nationalities and languages, days of the week and months of the year, public holidays as well as geographical places: Dr David James is the consultant at Leeds City Hospital. They are planning a long holiday in New Zealand. Can she speak Japanese? The next meeting of the group will take place on Thursday. What plans do you have for Chinese New Year? We use capital letters for the titles of books, magazines and newspapers, plays and music: ‘Oliver’ is a musical based on the novel ‘Oliver Twist’ by Charles Dickens. The Straits Times is a daily English language newspaper in Singapore. They are performing Beethoven’s Sixth Symphony. In addition to closing sentences, we also use full stops in initials for personal names: G. W. Dwyer David A. Johnston, Accountant. Full stops are also used after abbreviations, although this practice is becoming less common: Arr. (arrival) etc. (etcetera) Dr. (doctor) Prof. (professor) Punctuation: question marks (?) and exclamation marks (!) 问号和叹号: We use question marks to make clear that what is said is a question. When we use a question mark, we do not use a full stop: Why do they make so many mistakes? A: So you’re Harry’s cousin? B: Yes. That’s right. We use exclamation marks to indicate an exclamative clause or expression in informal writing. When we want to emphasise something in informal writing, we sometimes use more than one exclamation mark: Listen! Oh no!!! Please don’t ask me to phone her. She’ll talk for hours!!! Punctuation: commas (,) 逗号: We use commas to separate a list of similar words or phrases: It’s important to write in clear, simple, accurate words. They were more friendly, more talkative, more open than last time we met them. We do not normally use a comma before and at the end of a list of single words: They travelled through Bulgaria, Slovakia, the Czech Republic and Poland. American English does use a comma in lists before and: We took bread, cheese, and fruit with us. We use commas to separate words or phrases that mark where the voice would pause slightly: I can’t tell you now. However, all will be revealed tomorrow at midday. We had, in fact, lost all of our money. James, our guide, will accompany you on the boat across to the island. Separating clauses with commas When main clauses are separated by and, or, but, we don’t normally use a comma if the clauses have the same subject. However, we sometimes use commas if the clauses have different subjects: They were very friendly and invited us to their villa in Portugal. (same subject) Footballers these days earn more money but they are fitter and play many more matches. (same subject) It was an expensive hotel in the centre of Stockholm, but we decided it was worth the money. (different subjects). When a subordinate clause comes before the main clause, we commonly use a comma to separate the clauses. However, we do not always do this in short sentences: If you get lost in the city centre, please don’t hesitate to text us or phone us. If you get lost just phone us. When we use subordinate or non-finite comment clauses to give further details or more information, we commonly use commas to separate the clauses: You do need to wear a darker jacket, if I may say so. To be honest, I thought they were very very rude. Commas and relative clauses: We use commas to mark non-defining clauses. Such clauses normally add extra, non-essential information about the noun or noun phrase: The ambulance, which arrived after just five minutes, took three people to the hospital immediately. Hong Kong, where the first ASEAN meeting was held, is a very different city now. The same is true for non-finite clauses: The storm, lasting as it did for several days, caused serious damage to villages near the coast. Warning: We don’t use commas to mark defining clauses: Barcelona was the Spanish city that was selected for the Olympic Games. Not: … the Spanish city, that was selected … Commas and speech forms: We commonly separate tags and yes-no responses with commas: They are going to the party, aren’t they? No, thank you. I’ve already eaten too much. We also usually separate vocatives, discourse markers and interjections with commas: Open the door for them, Kayleigh, can you. Thanks. (vocative [ˈvɑkətɪv]: in some languages, the form of a noun that is used for showing that a particular person or thing is being spoken to. A vocative is a word such as ' darling' or ' madam' which is used to address someone or attract their attention. ) Well, what do you think we should do about it? (discourse marker) Wow, that sounds really exciting. (interjection). We use commas to show that direct speech is following or has just occurred: He said in his opening speech, ‘Now is the time to plan for the future.’ (or He said in his opening speech: ‘Now is the time to plan for the future.’). When the direct speech is first, we use a comma before the closing of the quotation marks: ‘We don’t want to go on holiday to the same place every year,’ he said impatiently. Punctuation: colons (:) and semi-colons (;) 冒号和分号 We use colons to introduce lists: There are three main reasons for the success of the government: economic, social and political. We also use colons to indicate a subtitle or to indicate a subdivision of a topic: Life in Provence: A Personal View. We often use colons to introduce direct speech: Then he said: ‘I really cannot help you in any way.’ We commonly use a colon between sentences when the second sentence explains or justifies the first sentence: Try to keep your flat clean and tidy: it will sell more easily. We use semi-colons instead of full stops to separate two main clauses. In such cases, the clauses are related in meaning but are separated grammatically: Spanish is spoken throughout South America; in Brazil the main language is Portuguese. Semi-colons are not commonly used in contemporary English. Full stops and commas are more common. Punctuation: quotation marks (‘…’ or “…”) 引号 Quotation marks in English are ‘…’ or “…”. In direct speech, we enclose what is said within a pair of single or double quotation marks, although single quotation marks are becoming more common. Direct speech begins with a capital letter and can be preceded by a comma or a colon: She said, “Where can we find a nice Indian restaurant?” (or She said: ‘Where can we find a nice Indian restaurant?’). We can put the reporting clause in three different positions. Note the position of commas and full stops here: The fitness trainer said, ‘Don’t try to do too much when you begin.’ (quotation mark after comma introducing speech and after full stop). ‘Don’t try to do too much when you begin,’ the fitness trainer said. (comma before closing quotation mark). ‘Don’t try to do too much,’ the fitness trainer said, ‘when you begin.’ (commas separating the reporting clause). When we use direct speech inside direct speech, we use either single quotation marks inside double quotation marks, or double quotation marks inside single quotation marks: “It was getting really cold,” he said, “and they were saying ‘When can we go back home?’” Jaya said, ‘They were getting really excited and were shouting “Come on!”’. We commonly use question marks inside the quotation marks unless the question is part of the reporting clause: ‘Why don’t they know who is responsible?’ they asked. So did they really say ‘We will win every match for the next three weeks’? We also use single quotation marks to draw attention to a word. We can use quotation marks in this way when we want to question the exact meaning of the word: I am very disappointed by his ‘apology’. I don’t think he meant it at all. NEW ‘WAR’ OVER NORTH SEA FISHING PLANS. We sometimes use quotation marks to refer to the titles of books, newspapers, magazines, films, songs, poems, videos, CDs, etc: There’s a special report all about it in ‘The Daily Mail’. We can use italics instead of quotation marks for these citations: There’s a special report all about it in The Daily Mail. Articles or chapters within books, or titles of short stories, are normally punctuated by single quotation marks: The longest chapter in the book is the last one called ‘The Future of Africa’. Punctuation: dashes ( – ) and other punctuation marks: Dashes are more common in informal writing. They can be used in similar ways to commas or semi-colons. Both single and multiple dashes may be used: Our teacher – who often gets cross when we’re late – wasn’t cross at all. No one could believe it! Just wanted to thank you for a lovely evening – we really enjoyed it. Brackets have a similar function to dashes. They often add extra, non-essential information: Thriplow (pronounced ‘Triplow’) is a small village in the eastern part of England. We use brackets around dates and page numbers in academic writing: Heaton (1978) gives a convincing explanation of how hurricanes are formed (pages 27–32). We often use forward slashes in internet addresses and to indicate and/or in academic references: You can find the figures you need on www.bbc.co.uk/finance. Binks (1995/1997) has already researched this aspect of Roman history. Punctuation: numerals and punctuation In British English the date is usually given in the order day, month, year. We use full stops in dates. Forward slashes or dashes are also commonly used: Date of birth: 1.8.1985 (or 1/8/1985 or 1–8–1985). In American English the day and the month are in a different order so that 8 January 1985 is written as follows: 1–8–1985 (or 1/8/1985 or 1.8.1985). We don’t usually punctuate weights and measures and references to numbers: 4kg (4 kilograms)10m (10 metres) 5m dollars (5 million dollars). Commas are used in numbers to indicate units of thousands and millions: 7,980 (seven thousand, nine hundred and eighty). 11,487,562 (eleven million, four hundred and eighty-seven thousand, five hundred and sixty-two). We use full stops, not commas, to indicate decimal points: 6.5 (six point five). Not: 6,5. We can punctuate times with full stops or colons: The shop opens at 9.30. (or 9:30). Saying email and internet addresses Spoken English: When we speak email and web addresses, we say each word separately. To avoid confusion, we sometimes spell out each letter of a word: Hannah.reeves@lit.com = Hannah dot reeves at l-i-t dot com. miles_hotel.com/home = miles underscore hotel dot com forward slash home. www.theplace.org = www dot theplace (all one word) dot org. Symbols and typographic conventions. ( ) parentheses (or round brackets). ! exclamation mark. [ ] square brackets (or box brackets). { } curly brackets. ° degrees (40º: forty degrees). “ ” double quotation marks. % per cent. ‘ ’ single quotation marks. & and (also called ‘ampersand’). ' apostrophe. © copyright. - hyphen. < less than. – dash. > greater than. / forward slash. \ back slash.
